Languages of Indonesia Wikipedia

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More than 700 living languages are spoken in Indonesia.^[1] These figures indicate that Indonesia has about 10% of the world’s languages,^[2] establishing its reputation as the second most linguistically diverse nation in the world after Papua New Guinea.^[3] Most languages belong to the Austronesian language family, while there are over 270 Papuan languages spoken in eastern Indonesia.^[4] The language most widely spoken as a native language is Javanese.

Languages in Indonesia are classified into nine categories: national language, locally used indigenous languages, regional lingua francas, foreign and additional languages, heritage languages, languages in the religious domain, English as a lingua franca, and sign languages.^[5][6]

National language[edit]

The official language of Indonesia is Indonesian^[7] (locally known as bahasa Indonesia), a standardised form of Malay,^[8] which serves as the lingua franca of the archipelago. The vocabulary of Indonesian borrows heavily from regional languages of Indonesia, such as Javanese, Sundanese and Minangkabau, as well as from Dutch, Sanskrit, Portuguese, Arabic and more recently English.^[9][10][11]
The Indonesian language is primarily used in commerce, administration, education and the media, and thus nearly every Indonesian speaks the language to varying degrees of proficiency.^[12] Most Indonesians speak other languages, such as Javanese, as their first language.^[1] This makes plurilingualism a norm in Indonesia.^[12]

Indigenous languages and regional lingua francas[edit]

Indonesia recognizes only a single national language, and indigenous languages are recognized at the regional level, although policies vary from one region to another. For example, in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, the Javanese language is the region’s official language along with Indonesian.^[13] Javanese is the most spoken indigenous language, with native speakers constituting 31.8% of the total population of Indonesia (as of 2010).^[14] Javanese speakers are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of Java and also sizable numbers in most provinces. The next most widely spoken regional languages in the country are Sundanese, local Malay, Madurese and Minangkabau. A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.^[15]

There are hundreds of indigenous languages spoken in Indonesia. Most of them are locally used indigenous languages,^[16] a category of languages referring to those spoken at the local, regional level, spoken by a small number of people, ranging from a few to a few thousands of people. These include small languages such as Benggoi, Mombum and Towei.^{[4][page needed]} Other languages are spoken at the regional level to connect various ethnicities. For this reason, these languages are known as regional lingua francas (RLFs). According to Subhan Zein, there are at least 43 RLFs in Indonesia, categorized into two types: Malayic RLFs and Non-Malayic RLFs. The former refers to a group of regional lingua francas that are thought of as indigenised varieties of Malay or Indonesian. These include such languages as Ambon Malay, Banjar Malay and Papuan Malay. The latter refers to regional lingua francas that are not associated with Malay or Indonesian, including Biak, Iban and Onin.^{[17][4][page needed][a]}

Foreign languages[edit]

As early as the seventh century AD, the natives of the archipelago began an intense period of trades with those coming from China, India and other countries. This was followed by a long period of colonization by the Dutch and Portugal colonials. The outcome of these processes has been the development of a group of heritage languages spoken by Arab, Chinese, Eurasian and Dutch descendants, among others. Chinese linguistic varieties such as Hokkien, Hakka, and Mandarin are the most common heritage languages. A small number of heritage language speakers speak Arabic and Dutch.^[18]

Despite the Dutch presence in Indonesia for almost 350 years, as parts of Indonesia were ruled by the Dutch East India Company and the whole of modern Indonesia was in the Dutch East Indies, the Dutch language has no official status in Indonesia.^[19] The small minority that can speak the language fluently are either educated members of the oldest generation, or employed in the legal profession,^[20] as certain law codes are still only available in Dutch.^[21]

English[edit]

English has traditionally been categorized as the first foreign language in Indonesia.^[22] However, increasing exposure to the language, the decreasing influence of native-speaker norms in the country and the prevalent use of the language as a lingua franca in the broader context such as ASEAN means that the categorization has been put into question.^[23][24] Scholars such as Lowenberg argue that English is best seen as an additional language. Meanwhile, Zein argues that English in Indonesia is best categorized as a lingua franca,^[23] an argument parallel with Kirkpatrick’s contention on the use of English as a lingua franca in the broader ASEAN context.^[25]

Other languages[edit]

Other languages, such as Arabic, French, German, Japanese, Korean, Mandarin, Russian, and Spanish, are non-native to Indonesia. These languages are included in the educational curriculum and may be categorized as either foreign or additional languages, depending on the instrumental function of the languages, length and types of exposure, as well as the wide-ranging motivations of the speakers or learners who use and or learn them.^[26]

Endangered languages[edit]

There are 726 languages spoken across the Indonesian archipelago in 2009 (dropped from 742 languages in 2007), the second largest multilingual population in the world after Papua New Guinea. Indonesian Papua, which is adjacent to Papua New Guinea, has the most languages in Indonesia.^[27] Based on the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale classification used by Ethnologue (formerly the Summer Institute of Linguistics), 63 languages are dying (shown in red on the bar chart, subdivided into Moribund and Nearly Extinct, or Dormant), which is defined as “The only fluent users (if any) are older than child-bearing age.”^[28]

Language policy[edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2020)

In 2013, Indonesia’s then minister of education and culture, Muhammad Nuh, affirmed in January that the teaching of local languages as school subjects would be part of the national education curriculum. Muhammad stated that much of the public worry about the teaching of local languages being left out of the curriculum is misplaced and that the new curriculum will be conveyed to them.^[29]

Languages by speakers[edit]

The population numbers given below are of native speakers, excepting the figure for Indonesian, which counts its total speakers. The total population of the country was 237.6 million in 2010.

Languages by family[edit]

Several prominent languages spoken in Indonesia sorted by language family are:

There are many additional small families and isolates among the Papuan languages.

Below is a full list of Papuan language families spoken in Indonesia, following Palmer, et al. (2018):^[35]

Sign languages[edit]

There are at least 2.5 million sign language users across the country, although official report only shows less than 50,000.^[36] Sign language users are often ridiculed and stigmatized.^[37]

Writing system[edit]

Indonesian languages are generally not rendered in native-invented systems, but in scripts devised by speakers of other languages, that is, Tamil, Arabic, and Latin. Malay, for example, has a long history as a written language and has been rendered in Brahmic, Arabic, and Latin scripts. Javanese has been written in the Pallava script of South India, as well as their derivative (known as Kawi and Javanese), in an Arabic alphabet called pegon that incorporates Javanese sounds, and in the Latin script.

Chinese characters have never been used to write Indonesian languages, although Indonesian place-names, personal names, and names of trade goods appear in reports and histories written for China’s imperial courts.^[38]

List of writing systems[edit]

• Latin – The official writing system of Indonesian; most Indonesian vernacular languages now adopt Latin script.
• Kaganga – Historically used to write Rejang, an Austronesian language from Bengkulu.
• Rencong – A Brahmic-based script, formerly used by Malays before the arrival of Islam, which introduced the Jawi script.
• Sundanese – A Brahmic-based script, used by Sundanese to write the Sundanese language, although Sundanese also has a standard Latin orthography.
• Jawi and Pegon – An Arabic-based script, once widely used throughout Indonesia, now in decline but still used by Malays, Minangkabau, Banjarese, Acehnese, Javanese, Osing, Sundanese, and Madurese (which has its own form of Arabic writing known as Pegon.)
• Javanese – A Brahmic-based script used by the Javanese and related peoples. Today the script is in rapid decline and largely supplanted by Latin.
• Kawi script – The oldest known Brahmic writing system in Indonesia and the ancestor to all Brahmic based writing systems in Insular Southeast Asia.
• Balinese – A Brahmic-based script used by the Balinese people to write Balinese. It is closely related to Javanese script.
• Rejang – A Brahmic-based script used by the Rejang people of Bengkulu, Sumatra. It is closely related to Kerinci, Lampung and Rencong script.
• Kerinci (Kaganga) – A Brahmic-based script used by the Kerincis to write their language.
• Batak – A Brahmic-based script, used by the Batak people of North Sumatra.
• Lontara – A Brahmic-based script, used by the Buginese and Makassarese in Sulawesi.
• Lampung – A Brahmic-based script, still used by Lampung people to write Lampung language, although they are in rapid decline. Lampung script is closely related to Rencong, Kerinci and Rejang script.
• Hangeul Cia-Cia – The Hangeul script used to write the Cia-Cia language in Buton Island, Southeast Sulawesi.

Sample text[edit]

The following texts are translations of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the languages of Indonesia.

Todos os seres humanos nascem livres e iguais em dignidade e direitos, são dotados de razão e consciência e devem agir uns para com os outros com espírito de fraternidade.

Alle mensen worden vrij en gelijk in waardigheid en rechten geboren, ze zijn begiftigd met rede en geweten en behoren tegenover elkaar te handelen in een geest van broederschap.

• Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia)

Semua orang dilahirkan merdeka dan mempunyai martabat dan hak-hak yang sama. Mereka dikaruniai akal dan hati nurani dan hendaknya bergaul satu sama lain dalam semangat persaudaraan.

Sabên manungsa kalairake mardika lan darbe martabat lan hak-hak kang padha. Kabeh pinaringan akal lan kalbu sarta kaajab anggone pasrawungan mêmitran siji lan liyane tansah ngugemi jiwa paseduluran.

Semua manusia dilahirkan bebas dan samarata dari segi kemuliaan dan hak-hak. Mereka mempunyai pemikiran dan perasaan hati dan hendaklah bertindak di antara satu sama lain dengan semangat persaudaraan.

• Minangkabau (Baso Minangkabau)

Sadonyo manusia dilahiakan mardeka dan punyo martabat sarato hak-hak nan samo. Mareka dikaruniai aka jo hati nurani, supayo satu samo lain bagaul sarupo urang badunsanak.

Sininna rupa tau ri jajiangngi rilinoe nappunnai manengngi riasengnge alebbireng. Nappunai riasengnge akkaleng, nappunai riasengnge ati marennni na sibole bolena pada sipakatau pada massalasureng.

Sami manusane sane nyruwadi wantah merdeka tur maduwe kautamaan lan hak-hak sane pateh. Sami kalugrain papineh lan idep tur mangdane pada masawitra melarapan semangat pakulawargaan.

Sakumna jalma gubrag ka alam dunya téh sipatna merdika jeung boga martabat katut hak-hak anu sarua. Maranéhna dibéré akal jeung haté nurani, campur-gaul jeung sasamana aya dina sumanget duduluran.

Sadajana oreng lahir mardika e sarenge drajat klaban hak-hak se dha-padha. Sadajana eparenge akal sareng nurani ban kodu areng-sareng akanca kadi taretan.

Galo-galo uwong dari lahirnyo bebas, samorato martabat jugo hak-haknyo. Wong dienjuk utak samo raso ati, kendaknyo tu begaul sesamo manusio pecak wong sedulur.

Bandum ureuëng lahé deungon meurdéhka, dan deungon martabat dan hak njang saban. Ngon akai geuseumiké, ngon haté geumeurasa, bandum geutanjoë lagèë sjèëdara.

Ema hotu hotu moris hanesan ho dignidade ho direitu. Sira hotu iha hanoin, konsiensia n’e duni tenki hare malu hanesan espiritu maun-alin.

Atoni ma bife ok-okê mahonis kamafutû ma nmuî upan ma hak namnés. Sin napein tenab ma nekmeü ma sin musti nabai es nok es onlê olif-tataf.

Kanan mansian mahonis merdeka ma nok upan ma hak papmesê. Sin naheun nok tenab ma nekmeû ma sin es nok es musti nfain onlê olif-tataf.

Sabarataan manusia diranakakan bibas mardika wan ba’isi martabat lawan jua ba’isi hak-hak nang sama. Bubuhannya sabarataan dibari’i akal wan jua pangrasa hati nurani, supaya samunyaan urang antara sa’ikung lawan sa’ikung bapatutan nangkaya urang badangsanakan.

Unyin Jelema dilaheʁko merdeka jama wat pi’il ʁik hak sai gokgoh. Tiyan dikaruniako akal jama hati nurani maʁai unggal tiyan dapok nengah nyampoʁ dilom semangat muaʁiyan.

Kutê tun laher mêrdeka, tmuan hok-hok gik srai. Kutê nagiak-ba akêa peker ngen atêi, kêrno o kêlok-nê bêkuat-ba do ngen luyên lêm asai sêpasuak.

• Bengkulu Malay (Bahaso Melayu Bengkulu)

Segalo orang dilahirkan merdeka kek punyo martabat kek hak-hak yang samo. Tobonyo dikasi akal kek hati nurani supayo bekawan dalam raso cak orang besanak.

Comparison chart[edit]

Below is a chart of several Indonesian languages. All of them except for Galela belong to the Austronesian language family. While there have been misunderstandings on which ones should be classified as languages and which ones should be classified as dialects, the chart confirms that many have similarities, yet are not mutually comprehensible. The languages are arranged geographically.

Portuguese	um	dois	três	quatro	água	pessoa	casa	cão	gato	coco	dia	novo	nós	o que	e
Dutch	een	twee	drie	vier	water	mensen	thuis	hond	kat	kokosnoot	dag	nieuw	ons	wat	en
Indonesian	satu	dua	tiga	empat	air	orang	rumah	anjing	kucing	kelapa	hari	baru	kita	apa	dan
Minangkabau	cie’	duo	tigo	ampe’	aie	urang	rumah	anjiang	kuciang	karambia	hari	baru	awak	apo	jo
Palembang Malay	sikok	duo	tigo	empat	banyu	wong	rumah	anjing	kucing	kelapo	siang	baru	kito	apo	dan
Betawi	atu’	dué	tigé	empat	aér	orang	ruméh	anjing	kucing	kelapé	ari	baru	kité	apé	amé
Banjarese	asa	dua	talu	ampat	banyu	urang	rumah	hadupan	batingas	nyiur	hari	hanyar	kita	apa	wan
Kutainese	satu	due	tige	empat	ranam	urang	rumah	koyok	nyiur	hari	beru	etam	apa	dengan
Manado Malay	satu	dua	tiga	ampa	aer	orang	ruma	anjing	kucing	kalapa	hari	baru	torang	apa	deng
Ambonese Malay	satu	dua	tiga	ampa	air	orang	ruma	anjing	kucing	kalapa	hari	baru	katong	apa	dan
Acehnese	sa	dua	lhèë	peuët	ië	ureuëng	rumoh	asèë	miong / miei	u	uroë	ban	geutanyoë	peuë	ngon
Nias	sara	dua	tölu	öfa	idanö	niha	omo	asu	mao	banio	luo	bohou	ya’ita	hadia	ba
Toba Batak	sada	dua	tolu	opat	aek	halak	jabu	biang	huting	harambiri	ari	ibbaru	hita	aha	dohot
Mandailing Batak	sada	dua	tolu	opat	aek	halak	bagas	asu	arambir	ari	baru	hita	aha	dohot
Lampung	say	ʁuwa	telu	ampat	way	jelema	nuwa	asu	kucing	nyiwi	ʁani	ampai	ʁam	api	jama
Rejang (of Lebong dialect)	do	duai	tlau	pat	bioa	tun manusio	umêak	kuyuk	kucing	nioa	bilai	blau	itê	jano, gen	ngen, magêa
Sundanese	hiji	dua	tilu	opat	cai/ci	jalma	imah	anjing	ucing	kalapa	poé	anyar	urang	naon	jeung
Javanese	siji	loro	têlu[39]	papat	banyu	uwòng[39]	omah	asu	kucing	kambìl[39]	dinå[39]	anyar/énggal[39]	adhéwé[39]	åpå[39]/anu	lan
Madurese	settong	dhuwa’	tello’	empa’	âêng	oreng	roma	pate’	kochèng	nyior	are	anyar	sengko	apa	bèn
Balinese	besik	dadua	telu	papat	yéh	jadma	umah	cicing/kuluk	méong	nyuh	rahina	mara	iraga	apa	muah/lan
Sasak	sa/seke’	due	telu	mpat	aik	dengan	bale	acong/basong	kenyamen/nyioh	jelo	baru	ite	ape	dait
Bima	ica	dua	tolu	upa	oi	dou	uma	lako	ngao	ni’u	nai	bou	nami	au	labo
Ngaju Dayak	ije’	due’	telu’	epat	danum	uluh	huma’	asu	posa	enyuh	andau	taheta	itah	narai	tuntang
Kenyah Dayak[40]	sé	dué	telew	pat	sungai	kelunan / klunan	lamin / uma’	asew	séang	nyo	dau	maring	mé’ tew / teleu	inew	ngan
Buginese	seqdi	dua	tellu	eppa	je’ne’	tau	bola	asu	coki	kaluku	esso	ma-baru	idiq	aga	na
Makassarese	se’re	rua	tallu	appa’	je’ne’	tau	balla’	kongkong	ngeong	kaluku	allo	beru	ikatte	apa	na
Mongondow	tobatú	doyowa	toḷu	opat	tubig	intau	baḷoi	ungkú	pinggó	bangó	singgai	mo-bagu	kita	onu	bo
Tolaki	o’aso	o’ruo	o’tolu	o’omba	iwoi	toono	laika	odahu	kaluku	oleo	wuohu	inggito	ohawo	ronga
Galela	moi	sinoto	sa’ange	iha	ake	nyawa	tahu	kaso	igo	wange	ḋamomuane	ngone	okia	de
Biak	oser/eser	suru	kyor	fyak	war	snon/kawasa	rum	naf/rofan	pus	sray	ras	babo	ko	sa	ma/kuker

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

Bibliography[edit]

External links[edit]