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The Republic of Indonesia was declared in 1945, with a proclaimed jurisdiction over the present area from Sabang in Sumatra to Merauke in Papua, or the entire area of the former Dutch (or Netherlands) East Indies. Although the Netherlands retained possession of a large part of this region (including Papua), a provisional capital was established in Yogyakarta, the stronghold of the revolution.
With the close of the struggle for independence in 1949, the Republic of the United States of Indonesia was established. The federal system did not last, however, and in 1950 the federated governments unanimously decided to return to a “unitary”—or more centralized—form of government, as well as to the name Republic of Indonesia. After some difficulties, the constitution of 1945 was reinstated by presidential decree. This constitution has remained the basis of Indonesia’s government, although some significant amendments were made during a period of reformasi (reformation) around the turn of the 21st century.
Constitutional framework
The 1945 constitution invests most of the power in the executive branch of the government, particularly in the president, who is assisted by a vice president and a cabinet. The constitution also provides for a body of presidential advisers, called the Supreme Advisory Council (Dewan Pertimbangan Agung)—the advice of which is not legally binding, however—as well as a presidentially appointed Supreme Audit Board (Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan), which controls state finance. Until 2002 the president and vice president were elected every five years by the People’s Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat; MPR), but in that year a new law decreed that beginning in 2004 both leaders were to be directly elected. In addition, legislation passed in 1999 limited the president to two five-year terms.
Cabinet ministers are appointed by the president. Ministries manage broad areas, such as economic affairs, foreign affairs, defense, education, agriculture, information, and religious affairs. The number of ministers and the nature of their areas of assignment depend on the president. In addition to appointing the cabinet, the president is the supreme commander of the army, the navy, and the air force. The president also has the authority to introduce bills, issue regulations, implement acts, and make agreements with foreign countries.
The MPR constitutes the legislative branch of Indonesia’s government; it is primarily responsible for interpreting the constitution and the broad lines of state policy. Formerly unicameral, the MPR has been a bicameral body since the elections of 2004, with the Council of the People’s Representatives (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat; DPR) as the lower house and the Council of Regional Representatives (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah; DPD) as the upper house. About four-fifths of the MPR’s seats belong to the lower house. Members of the DPD are elected directly from a nationwide pool of nonpartisan candidates, and members of the DPR are directly elected through a province-based proportional system that allows voters to cast ballots for individuals as well as particular parties. All legislators serve five-year terms.
Local government
Indonesia is divided into some 30 propinsi, or provinsi (provinces), plus the two daerah istimewa (special districts) of Yogyakarta in central Java and Aceh in northern Sumatra and the daerah khusus ibukota (special capital district) of metropolitan Jakarta, known as Jakarta Raya. On the smaller islands, most administrative regions were created to coincide with traditional regions, the boundaries of which were defined largely by natural geographic features; on the larger islands, by contrast, administrative boundaries were constructed to simplify complex traditional and cultural divisions. The province of Central Java (Jawa Tengah), for instance, spans not only the core of the island of Java but also the core of Javanese culture. Within the province’s borders lie the semiautonomous special district of Yogyakarta and the city of Surakarta (Solo), both of which are historical court centres that maintain traditional rulers (albeit without real political power). Similarly, the provinces of West Java (Jawa Barat) and Banten, on the western part of the island, coincide with the geographic, cultural, and linguistic terrain of the Sundanese people.
The number of first-order political subdivisions has changed since the end of the 20th century. East Timor (declared a province in 1976) gained its independence in 1999. In addition, largely as a result of the push to decentralize in the early 21st century, several new provinces were created out of the existing structure. The province of Banten (2000) was formed from the western tip of West Java. West Papua (Papua Barat; 2006) was created from the western end of Papua. North Kalimantan (Kalimantan Utara; 2012) was split off from East Kalimantan. New provinces in Celebes included Gorontalo (2000; government installed in 2001) on the northern peninsula and West Sulawesi (Sulawesi Barat; 2004) in the island’s west-central coastal region. The Riau Islands (Kepulauan Riau; 2002; government installed in 2004) and Bangka Belitung (2000; government installed in 2001) were created from islands off Sumatra’s eastern shore.
Each of the more than 300 second-order subdivisions, kabupaten (regencies), is headed by a bupati (governor) and has a local legislature. More than 5,000 third-order divisions, kecamatan (districts), and several dozen kota (cities) have obtained autonomous status. Since 1999 district and city leaders have been chosen through direct local elections. Members of the Local Councils of Representatives (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah), which deal more directly with the national legislature, also are selected through general election.
Villages (kampung) and groups of villages (desa), which exist in both rural and urban areas, provide the link between the people and the central government on the district level. Kampung and desa heads are usually elected in rural areas and appointed in urban ones; they are all local government employees. Normally, a village has two levels of neighbourhood organization, a rukun warga (RW; community association) and rukun tetangga (RT; neighbourhood associations). These bodies elect their chairpersons.